Analysis of avian disease transmission risk and prevention measures in China

Many zoonotic diseases are found in wild animals and present a serious risk to human health, in particularly the virus carried by birds flying freely around the world is hard to control. There are three main bird migration routes which cover the most areas of China. It is important to investigate and fully understand the types of avian transmitted diseases in key areas on the bird migration routines and its impacts on both birds and human health. However, no literature is available in how about the risk of virus carried by migrating birds, and how to predict and reduce this risk of virus spreading to human being so far. In this paper, we first reviewed the main pathogen types carried by birds, including coronaviruses, influenza viruses, parasites, Newcastle disease virus (NDV), etc., and then discussed the spread risk of avian viruses to human being and animals in key areas of biosafety prevention. We also analyzed and discussed the risk of cross-spread of diseases among different bird species in nature reserves located on bird migration routes which provide sufficient food sources for migratory birds and attract numerous birds. Diseases transmitted by wild birds pose a serious threat to poultry farms, where high density of poultry may become avian influenza virus (AIV) reservoirs, cause a risk of avian influenza outbreaks. Airports are mostly built in suburban areas or remote areas with good ecological environment. There are important transit places for bird migration and densely populated areas, which have serious risk of disease transmission. Finally, this paper puts forward the following prevention suggestions from three aspects. First, establish and improve the monitoring and prediction mechanism of migratory birds, and use laser technology to prevent contact between wild birds and poultry. Second, examine and identify virus types carried by birds in their habitats and carry out vaccination. Third, protect the ecological environment of bird habitat, and keep wild birds in their natural habitat, so as to reduce the contact between wild birds and human and poultry, and thus reduce the risk of virus transmission.

Silent superbug killers in a river near you how factory farms contaminate public water courses on three continents

Water downstream from factory farms harbours an invisible threat to people's health which could eclipse the COVID-19 crisis. The threat? Antibiotic Resistance Genes (ARGs) which are driving antimicrobial resistance the world's superbug crisis - projected to kill up to 10 million people annually by 2050. This publication reports the presence of ARGs in animal waste discharged from industrial farms into public waterways or onto soil (or crops) in four countries. Gauge community impact and sentiment regarding the issue was also highlighted. The water and sediment from public water courses connected to effluent discharges from 6-10 pig farms were tested in each of four countries (Canada, Spain, Thailand and the USA).

Clinical and epidemiologic features of SARS-CoV-2 in dogs and cats compiled through national surveillance in the United States

OBJECTIVE: To characterize clinical and epidemiologic features of SARS-CoV-2 in companion animals detected through both passive and active surveillance in the US. ANIMALS: 204 companion animals (109 cats, 95 dogs) across 33 states with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infections between March 2020 and December 2021. PROCEDURES: Public health officials, animal health officials, and academic researchers investigating zoonotic SARS-CoV-2 transmission events reported clinical, laboratory, and epidemiologic information through a standardized One Health surveillance process developed by the CDC and partners. RESULTS: Among dogs and cats identified through passive surveillance, 94% (n = 87) had reported exposure to a person with COVlD-19 before infection. Clinical signs of illness were present in 74% of pets identified through passive surveillance and 27% of pets identified through active surveillance. Duration of illness in pets averaged 15 days in cats and 12 days in dogs. The average time between human and pet onset of illness was 10 days. Viral nucleic acid was first detected at 3 days after exposure in both cats and dogs. Antibodies were detected starting 5 days after exposure, and titers were highest at 9 days in cats and 14 days in dogs. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results of the present study supported that cats and dogs primarily become infected with SARS-CoV-2 following expo- sure to a person with COVID-19, most often their owners. Case investigation and surveillance that include both people and animals are necessary to understand transmission dynamics and viral evolution of zoonotic diseases like SARS-CoV-2.

Warm-blooded animal toxoplasmosis and its connection to COVID-19: a review

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic illness that spreads from animals to people. Toxoplasma gondii, a protozoan parasite that infects warm-blooded mammals, causes the sickness. Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection that causes abortion and death in animals. Cats are the parasite's sole sexual hosts, thus they're the only ones who can get it. Because cats are frequent pets, they are highly likely to come into touch with humans. As a result, the disease poses a risk to human health. The potential danger is influenced by the frequency of oocyst secretion and the level of contamination in the environment. Toxoplasmosis has serious consequences for both animal and human health, hence preventative actions should be taken to reduce the dangers. COVID-19 is affected by such methods as well. Toxoplasmosis is thought to increase immunological and immunosuppressive factors, which increases the chance of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the severity of the resulting COVID-19. Research into Toxoplasma gondii intermediate hosts might help understand COVID-19's dynamics and determine if the virus can be transferred from animals to humans. We explore what we know about Toxoplasma gondii infection as a human parasitosis and how it may alter the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection in this review study.

Risky business: how Peru's wildlife markets are putting animals and people at risk

This publication presents Peru's illegal wildlife trade activity before and after Covid-19 pandemic which creates a perfect conditions for zoonotic emerging infectious diseases such as SARS-CoV-2 to emerge and spread among animals and people, thus recommendations to prevent this scenario are highlighted.

Infectious disease Roundup 2022

This paper describes the epidemiology, prevalence, transmission, prevention and control of some infectious diseases in companion animals, livestock, wild animals and humans in Ontario, Canada, in 2022, including SARS-CoV-2;Echinococcus multilocularis, Leishmania spp. and SARS-CoV-2;antimicrobial stewardship resources;2 cases of rabid dogs imported from Iran (July 2021 and January 2022);prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriacea, Dirofilaria immitis, Brucella canis, canine parainfluenza and adeno- and herpes viruses in dogs recently imported from Asia;Paragonimus kellicotti lung flukes and Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus in dogs;African swine fever in pet pigs, backyard pigs and wild pigs and blastomycosis in dogs and humans.

Susceptibility of different animal species to experimental infection with SARS-CoV-2 (review)

The susceptibility of animal species to SARS-CoV-2, under experimental conditions, is a subject of great interest for the international scientific community. Compared to observational studies of natural disease outbreaks in different animal species, experimental studies based on in silico, in vitro and in vivo research, are important alternatives to evaluate the prediction of potential hosts for SARS-CoV-2 infection. In order to determine the susceptibility of a host species and the risk of acting as a potential animal reservoir, a large number of different animal species, domestic and wild, were experimentally infected with SARS-CoV-2, which were classified as permissive or resistant. Experimental infections have proven to be crucial for clarifying aspects of the pathogenetic mechanism, viral persistence and elimination, immune response, antiviral sensitivity, vaccine production, immunotherapy and improving diagnostic methods. In this article, some experimental infections carried out in different animal species will be reviewed, according to the data from the literature.

The impact of reproductive disorders in animals infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus: a literature review

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has spread worldwide since the end of 2019. This virus infects humans and has also been found to infect animals. Viruses enter the human body through the ACE2 receptor on apical epithelial cells. ACE2 receptors are also present in animal epithelial cells, so the possible effects of cell damage due to SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans can also occur in animals. However, studies on the long - term effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection in animals, especially fertility, have not been widely reported. Therefore, this literature review aims to identify and analyze the long-term effects of SARS-CoV-2 virus infection on the function of the reproductive system of animals, especially protected wildlife. The data were obtained from literature published in PubMed-gov with selected keywords and several other filters activated. The study result s indicate that there is a possibility that animals infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus could cause infertility, so the application of health protocols is important for people who are in close contact with animals, especially wild animals.

Fumbling out the effective pathways to apply the wildlife and forest analytic toolkit in the Mekong region: looking at data and analysis perspectives

The Wildlife and Forest Analytic Toolkit, introduced by the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC), is designed to increase the effectiveness of measures combating wildlife and forest crimes (WAFCs). Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) countries have applied this toolkit as one of their priority actions after recognizing concerns about the biodiversity system and conservational zone through several illegal wildlife trade (IWT) activities. Although the toolkit has realized its fundamental objectives to readjust legal frameworks, enhance enforcement involvement, and improve their judicial and prosecutorial operations, the last components of data and analysis have not yet been implemented. This leads to slow updates of both trends and patterns concerning WAFCs that raise questions about the real levels of exploitation in the region. Using gray literature with published materials, combined with the IWT's database in the CITES system, this study examines why the data and analysis component of the Toolkit created obstacles in the GMS countries. Findings point to there being at least four main challenges to implementing data and analysis as the toolkit has recommended in the region: (1) availability and reliability of data;(2) data collection;(3) data resources (internal vs. external level);and (4) analytic research and its related monitors. Some practical recommendations call for further discussions. Meanwhile, updated information and specific data relating to zoonotic disease transmission are timely, considering the coronavirus pandemic.

Investigation of the role of healthy and sick equids in the COVID-19 pandemic through serological and molecular testing

Horses may act as incidental host and experience silent infection following spillover from humans with COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2-infected humans should avoid close contact with equids during the time of their illness.

Possession of exotic animals and zoonotic diseases: an approach from the Mexican context

The possession of exotic animals as pets is a social practice that has become more visible in Mexico in recent years, so it is interesting to understand its environmental and social implications and those related to human health. The present study aims to identify the main species of exotic animals kept as pets and the zoonotic diseases reported in these species. We analyzed official figures of seizures of exotic fauna in Mexico and reviewed specialized literature on zoonotic diseases documented in Mexico in these species. We identified zoonoses in species of fauna that can be acquired legally and illegally in the country, reported in environments in which animals coexist with other species and are in direct contact with people, which represents an important factor in the spread and propensity of this type of disease. We conclude that the sanitary regulation of wildlife markets, the monitoring and studying microorganisms associated with wildlife are valuable strategies to prevent the emergence of zoonoses.

Duration of MERS - Coronavirus antibodies in a small closed dromedary camel herd in Dubai

This investigation shows that MERS-CoV ELISA antibodies remain in dromedary camels at least for 9 years, most probably lifelong. The viral infection was most likely acquired at a young age when maternal antibodies have receded between 4 to 8 month of age. Additionally, in the investigated herd, the 4 ELISA antibody negative dromedary camels remained negative also for 9 years, indicating, that no MERS-CoV was circulating in the herd. Until today, the specific source of MERS-CoV infection for young dromedaries remains unknown.

Upregulation of coronavirus (MERS-CoV) receptor dipeptidyl peptodase 4 on camel leukocytes after bacterial stimulation in vitro

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen which causes high mortality rate in humans. Dromedary camels may play a central role in virus transmission to humans. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4), a transmembrane protein located on the cell surface of many epithelial and endothelial tissues was identified as the receptor for MERS-CoV. The current study investigated the possibility that bacterial stimulation of camel blood could affect the expression level of DPP4 on camel leukocyte subpopulation, which in turn may contribute to the higher susceptibility of camels with bacterial infection to MERS-CoV infection. DPP4 expression was evaluated by membrane immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. Stimulation of camel blood with the bacterial species S. aureus or E. coil resulted in the upregulation of DPPV on both monocytes and granulocytes, while S. agalactiae did not significantly modulate DPPV expression on either of the immune cells (p > 0.05). None of the bacterial species could induce a change in DPPV expression on lymphocytes from stimulated blood. Collectively, the present study showed an enhancing effect of bacterial stimulation on DPPV expression on camel monocytes and granulocytes.

SARS-CoV-2 in animals used for fur farming: GLEWS+ risk assessment (20 January 2021)

SARS-CoV-2 was first identified in humans in December 2019 and has since affected almost 68 million people causing over 1.5 million deaths worldwide. Animal-to-human and animal-to-animal transmission has been documented within farmed minks in several countries. SARS-CoV-2 has been identified in a farmed mink population in a number of countries. Some of the affected farms reported also workers SARS-CoV-2 infection and it is hypothesized that the mink farms were infected through human-mink transmission proving SARS-CoV-2 capability of reverse zoonosis. This Tripartite Risk Assessment, as a joint effort under the GLEWS+ initiative, completed with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), evaluates the risk of introduction and spread of SARS-CoV-2 within fur farming systems as well as whether farmed fur animals could play a significant role in the spread of SARS-CoV-2 to humans via spillover. Additionally, using a One Health approach, the Tripartite evaluated the risk of the escaped minks leading to the establishment of a viral reservoir in susceptible wildlife populations. This work provides guidance to Members on this newly emerging threat.

Pathology of animal models of COVID-19

This paper describes the pathogenesis and immunology of Macaca mulatta, Macaca fascicularis, ferrets, Syrian golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), mice, cats, mink, pigs and rabbits used as models for SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Domestic Animals as Potential Reservoirs of Zoonotic Viral Diseases.

Zoonoses are diseases and infections naturally transmitted between humans and vertebrate animals. Over the years, zoonoses have become increasingly significant threats to global health. They form the dominant group of diseases among the emerging infectious diseases (EID) and currently account for 73% of EID. Approximately 25% of zoonoses originate in domestic animals. The etiological agents of zoonoses include different pathogens, with viruses accounting for approximately 30% of all zoonotic infections. Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted directly or indirectly, by contact, via aerosols, through a vector, or vertically in utero. Zoonotic diseases are found in every continent except Antarctica. Numerous factors associated with the pathogen, human activities, and the environment play significant roles in the transmission and emergence of zoonotic diseases. Effective response and control of zoonotic diseases call for multiple-sector involvement and collaboration according to the One Health concept.

Chapter 3 - Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome

Middle East respiratory virus syndrome (MERS) is a viral disease that primarily affects the respiratory system, but also has a major impact on the kidneys and nervous system and, to a lesser extent, on the intestines, liver, and heart. Over 2500 cases and 850 deaths have been confirmed as of 2019. The fatality rate is approximately 35%, more than that caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and SARS-CoV-2 (that causes COVID-19). The first known case of MERS in humans was reported in 2012 in Saudi Arabia but the virus was present in stored serum samples from dromedary (one-humped) camels from Africa and the Middle East for decades before that time. Since then, it spread to at least 27 countries around the world, most of which are related to travel to the Arabian Peninsula. The coronavirus that causes MERS, MERS-CoV, is related to several other human coronaviruses that typically cause cold-like illness as well as to SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. MERS-CoV is from the subgenus Merbecovirus, while SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 are in Sarbecovirus. MERS-CoV also uses dipeptidyl peptidase 4 as its host cell receptor, while SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 use angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. While MERS-CoV is transmittable between people in close contact with an infected person, many infections are zoonotic and are due to inhaling infectious respiratory droplets from dromedaries or consuming their raw milk or urine. Many cases are nosocomial (acquired in healthcare facilities). Fortunately, MERS-CoV only can pass through several rounds of human-to-human transmission, unlike SARS-CoV-2. Much of the pathology is due to an excessive inflammatory type of immune response caused by cytokines and chemokines, abnormal blood coagulation, and virus-induced apoptosis (programmed cell death). Bats appear to be the reservoir hosts and should be monitored for possible zoonotic transmission outside of the Middle East, in line with the One Health approach.

Chapter 7 - Pulling it all together: where do we go from here?

Coronaviruses are Baltimore Class I viruses of the family Coronaviridae. Similarities and differences to other members of these groups are discussed. Proposed reservoir/intermediate hosts of severe acute respiratory system coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle Eastern respiratory system coronavirus, and SARS-CoV-2 are presented. Bats appear to be reservoir hosts for these and some animal coronaviruses. Other potential reservoir/intermediate hosts of pathogenic coronaviruses are presented, with particular emphasis on rodents and birds. Potential methods to predict or prevent future pandemics include the One Health Approach and SpillOver. Factors driving epidemics and pandemics are discussed, particularly microbial, host-related, and environmental factors as well as ‘The Human Factor,’ medical and behavioral interventions that decrease disease spread and severity. The author’s vision for Infectious Disease Centers (IDCs), similar to Ebola Centers, is presented. IDCs would respond to a broad range of infectious diseases, utilizing separated, negative-pressure areas of existing hospitals with specialized, trained healthcare personnel, microbiologists, public health officials, and lab technicians on call. The proposed IDCs would have stockpiles of personal protective equipment (PPE), equipment, and laboratory facilities on hand to respond to a range of infections. Equipment could include ventilators, autoclaves, dialysis equipment, and three-dimensional printers. The latter was used to produce PPE and ventilators during the COVID-19 pandemic. Other innovative plans would be encouraged, such as the conversions of a deck of a long-distance Italian ferry for patients needing an intermediate level of care during the COVID-19 pandemic. Problems associated with infectious disease epidemics in developing countries are examined, with suggestions for the inclusion of appropriate personnel, such as local cultural experts and interpreters, as well as innovative planners and, perhaps, 3-D printers.

Overview of the most significant Coronavirus infections in veterinary medicine

Background. Coronaviruses (CoVs) have been recognized in veterinary virology for a long time and comprise a large group of RNA viruses responsible for enteric, respiratory, hepatic, and neurologic diseases in a variety of animal species and humans. These viruses are very adaptable considering their highly error-prone replication process and recombination ability, resulting in remarkable mutability and efficient expansion of their host range and tissue tropism. Scope and Approach. In the recent past, after the outbreaks caused by SARS-CoV in 2002 and MERS-CoV in 2012, CoVs became a research focus in the scientific community. Moreover, the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic raised more questions concerning the threats posed by these viruses. Several significant examples of coronaviruses jumping the species barrier and changing their tropism have been reported in the past, and novel viruses of both animals and humans have appeared as a consequence. This paper reviews some of the examples of CoV mutability and the most notable animal coronaviruses of veterinary relevance. Key Findings and Conclusions. There is still no proof that the novel virus SARS-CoV-2 can be transmitted to humans from domestic animals, and its recent cross-species jump is currently being intensively researched. Intensified and diverse human activities that lead to the disruption of ecosystems contribute to the increased risk of contact with animals that might represent virus reservoirs. The need for constant surveillance of CoVs and expanded studies of their virological traits, mutation mechanisms, diversity, prophylactic and therapeutic measures highlight the key role of both veterinarians and medical doctors in order to preserve the health of the human population.

Virome characterization of game animals in China reveals a spectrum of emerging pathogens

Wild animals may be closely related to the outbreak of infectious diseases in recent years. For example, it has been reported that there are closely related SARS-CoV and new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in civet cats, raccoon dogs and pangolins. Therefore, it is of great significance to identify existing or potential pathogens in wild animals that may be in close contact with humans, in order to trace the origin of a specific epidemic and to carry out risk assessment of the most likely source of future epidemics.